Illumination apparatus and methods of forming the same

ABSTRACT

In one aspect, an illumination apparatus includes a waveguide, embedded in which are a light-emitting source and a photoluminescent material. Output light is emitted from at least a portion of a first surface of the waveguide. The photoluminescent material includes nano-size phosphor particles and/or quantum dots.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This Application is a National Phase of PCT Patent Application No.PCT/IL2006/000667 having International Filing Date of Jun. 7, 2006,which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.60/687,865 filed on Jun. 7, 2005. The contents of the above Applicationsare all incorporated herein by reference.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 12/324,134, filed on Nov. 26, 2008, which is acontinuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/921,305,filed on Dec. 7, 2007, which is the U.S. national stage application ofInternational (PCT) Patent Application Serial No. PCT/IL2006/000667,filed Jun. 7, 2006, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional PatentApplication No. 60/687,865, filed Jun. 7, 2005. This application alsoclaims priority to and the benefit of U.S. Provisional PatentApplication No. 61/076,427, filed on Jun. 27, 2008; U.S. ProvisionalPatent Application No. 61/135,098, filed on Jul. 16, 2008; U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 61/217,576, filed on Jun. 2, 2009,and U.S. Provisional Patent Application 61/220,024, filed on Jun. 24,2009. The entire disclosure of each of these applications isincorporated by reference herein.

TECHNICAL FIELD

In various embodiments, the present invention relates to artificialillumination, and in particular to an illumination apparatus capable ofproviding light at any intensity profile and any color profile,including, without limitation, uniform white light.

BACKGROUND

Artificial light may be generated in many ways, including,electroluminescent illumination (e.g., light-emitting diodes),incandescent illumination (e.g., conventional incandescent lamps andthermal light sources) and gas discharge illumination (e.g., fluorescentlamps, xenon lamps, and hollow cathode lamps). Light may also be emittedvia direct chemical radiation discharge of a photoluminescent (e.g.,chemoluminescence, fluorescence, or phosphorescence).

A light-emitting diode (LED) is essentially a p-n junction semiconductordiode that emits a monochromatic light when operated under forward bias.In the diode, current flows easily from the p-side to the n-side but notin the reverse direction. When two complementary charge carriers (i.e.,an electron and a hole) collide, the electron-hole pair experiences atransition to a lower energy level and emits a photon. The wavelength ofthe light emitted depends on the difference between the two energylevels, which in turn depends on the band-gap energy of the materialsforming the p-n junction.

LEDs are used in various applications, including, traffic signal lamps,large-sized full-color outdoor displays, various lamps for automobiles,solid-state lighting devices, flat panel displays, and the like. Thebasic structure of an LED consists of the light-emitting semiconductormaterial, also known as the bare die, and numerous additional componentsdesigned for improving the performance of the LED. These components mayinclude a light-reflecting cup mounted below the bare die, a transparentencapsulation (typically silicone) surrounding and protecting the baredie and the light reflecting cup, and bonders for supplying theelectrical current to the bare die. The bare die and the additionalcomponents are efficiently packed in a LED package.

The LED has won remarkable attention as a next-generation small-sizedlight-emitting source. The LED has heretofore had advantages such as asmall size, high resistance and long life, but has mainly been used asindicator illumination for various measuring meters or a confirmationlamp in a control state because of restrictions on a light-emittingefficiency and light-emitting output. However, in recent years, thelight-emitting efficiency has rapidly been improved, and may soon exceedthat of a high-pressure mercury lamp or a fluorescent lamp of adischarge type. Due to the appearance of the high-efficiencyhigh-luminance LED, a high-output light-emitting source using the LEDhas rapidly assumed a practicability. In recent years, a blue LED hasbeen brought into practical use, complementing conventional red andgreen LEDs, and this has also accelerated the application of the LED.

The high-efficiency high-luminance LED has been considered as apromising small-sized light-emitting source of an illuminating unithaving a light-condensing capability. The LED has characteristicssuperior to those of other light-emitting sources, such as life,durability, lighting speed, and lighting driving circuit. Furthermore,the availability of the three primary colors has enlarged an applicationrange of a full-color image displays.

Luminescence is a phenomenon in which energy is absorbed by a substance,commonly called a luminescent, and emitted in the form of light. Theabsorbed energy may be in a form of light (i.e., photons), electricalfield, or colliding particles (e.g., electrons). The wavelength of theemitted light differs from the characteristic wavelength of the absorbedenergy (the characteristic wavelength equals hc/E, where h is thePlank's constant, c is the speed of light and E is the energy absorbedby the luminescent). Luminescence may be classified by excitationmechanism as well as by emission mechanism. Examples of suchclassifications include photoluminescence, electroluminescence,fluorescence, and phosphorescence. Similarly, luminescent materials maybe classified into photoluminescent materials, electroluminescentmaterials, fluorescent materials, and phosphorescent materials,respectively.

A photoluminescent is a material which absorbs energy in the form oflight, an electroluminescent is a material which absorbs energy is inthe form of electrical field, a fluorescent material is a material whichemits light upon return to the base state from a singlet excitation, anda phosphorescent material is a material which emits light upon return tothe base state from a triplet excitation.

In fluorescent materials, or fluorophores, the electron de-excitationoccurs almost spontaneously, and the emission ceases when the sourcewhich provides the exciting energy to the fluorophore is removed.

In phosphor materials, or phosphors, the excitation state involves achange of spin state which decays only slowly. In phosphorescence, lightemitted by an atom or molecule persists after the exciting source isremoved.

Luminescent materials are selected according to their absorption andemission characteristics and are widely used in cathode ray tubes,fluorescent lamps, X-ray screens, neutron detectors, particlescintillators, ultraviolet (UV) lamps, flat-panel displays, and thelike. Luminescent materials, particularly phosphors, may also be usedfor altering the color of LEDs. Since blue light has a short wavelength(compared, e.g., to green or red light), and since the light emitted bythe phosphor generally has a longer wavelength than the absorbed light,blue light generated by a blue LED may be readily converted to producevisible light having a longer wavelength. For example, a blue LED coatedby a suitable yellow phosphor can emit white light. The phosphor absorbsthe light from the blue LED and emits in a broad spectrum, with a peakin the yellow region. The photons emitted by the phosphor and thenon-absorbed photons emitted of the LED are perceived together by thehuman eye as white light. The first commercially available phosphorbased white LED was produced by Nichia Co. and consisted of a galliumindium nitride (InGaN) blue LED coated with a yellow phosphor.

In order to get sufficient brightness, a high-intensity LED is needed toexcite the phosphor to emit the desired color. As commonly known, whitelight is composed of various colors of the whole range of visibleelectromagnetic spectrum. In the case of LEDs, only the appropriatemixture of complementary monochromatic colors can cast white light. Thisis typically achieved by having at least two complementary light sourcesin the proper power ratio. A “fuller” light (similar to sunlight) may beachieved by adding more colors. Phosphors are usually made of zincsulfide or yttrium oxides doped with certain transition metals (Ag, Mn,Zn, etc.) or rare earth metals (Ce, Eu, Tb, etc.) to obtain the desiredcolors.

In a similar mechanism, white LEDs may also be manufactured using afluorescent semiconductor material instead of a phosphor. Thefluorescent semiconductor material serves as a secondary emitting layer,which absorbs the light created by the light-emitting semiconductor andreemits yellow light. The fluorescent semiconductor material, typicallyan aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP), is bonded to the primarysource wafer.

Another type of light-emitting device is an organic light emitting diode(OLED) which makes use of thin organic films. An OLED device typicallyincludes an anode layer, a cathode layer, and an organic light-emittinglayer containing an organic compound that provides luminescence when anelectric field is applied. OLED devices are generally (but not always)intended to emit light through at least one of the electrodes, and maythus include one or more transparent electrodes.

Combinations of LEDs, OLEDs, and luminescence are widely used in thefield of electronic display devices. Many efforts have been made toresearch and develop various types of such devices. Electronic displaydevices may be categorized into active-display devices andpassive-display devices. The active-display devices include the cathoderay tube (CRT), the plasma display panel (PDP), and theelectroluminescent display (ELD). The passive-display devices include aliquid crystal display (LCD), the electrochemical display (ECD), and theelectrophoretic image display (EPID).

In active-display devices, each pixel radiates light independently.Passive-display devices, on the other hand, do not produce light withinthe pixel and the pixel is only able to block light. In LCD devices, forexample, an electric field is applied to liquid-crystal molecules, andan alignment of the liquid-crystal molecule is changed depending on theelectric field, to thereby change optical properties of the liquidcrystal, such as double refraction, optical rotatory power, dichroism,light scattering, etc. Since LCDs are passive, they display images byreflecting external light transmitted through an LCD panel or by usingthe light emitted from a light source, e.g., a backlight assembly,disposed below the LCD panel.

An LCD includes a LCD panel and backlight assembly. The LCD panelincludes an arrangement of pixels, which are typically formed ofthin-film transistors fabricated on a transparent substrate coated by aliquid-crystal film. The pixels include three color filters, each ofwhich transmits one-third of the light produced by each pixel. Thus,each LCD pixel is composed of three sub-pixels. The thin-filmtransistors are addressed by gate lines to perform display operation byway of the signals applied thereto through display signal lines. Thesignals charge the liquid-crystal film in the vicinity of the respectivethin-film transistors to effect a local change in optical properties ofthe liquid crystal film.

A typical LED backlight assembly includes a source of white light, alight-guiding plate for guiding the light toward the LCD panel, areflector disposed under the light-guiding plate to reflect the lightleaked from the light-guiding plate back toward the light-guiding plate,and optical sheets for enhancing brightness of the light exiting fromthe light-guiding plate. Backlight assemblies are designed to achievemany goals, including high brightness, large-area coverage, uniformluminance throughout the illuminated area, controlled viewing angle,small thickness, low weight, low power consumption, and low cost.

In operation, a backlight assembly produces white illumination directedtoward the LCD pixels. The optical properties of the liquid-crystal filmare locally modulated by the thin-film transistors to create alight-intensity modulation across the area of the display. The colorfilters colorize the intensity-modulated light emitted by the pixels toproduce a color output. By selective opacity modulation of neighboringpixels of the three-color components, selected intensities of the threecomponent colors are blended together to selectively control color lightoutput. Selective blending of three primary colors, i.e., red, green,and blue (RGB), generally produces a full range of colors suitable forcolor display purposes.

LCD devices are currently employed in many applications (cellularphones, personal acceptance devices, desktop monitors, portablecomputers, television displays, etc.), and there is a growing need todevise high-quality backlight assemblies for improving the image qualityin these applications.

Since the light from the backlight must pass through the color filters,it therefore must include a wavelength at which the respective filter istransparent. However, the use of white LEDs composed of blue LEDs coatedby yellow phosphors is not efficient for backlighting because, althoughsuch dichromatic light appears as white light to the human eye, itcannot efficiently pass through RGB color filters. Another potentialapproach is the use of red, green, and blue LEDs that match the centralwavelength of each color filter. This approach significantly complicatesthe manufacturing process because the red, green, and blue LEDs must beaccurately aligned in a multichip approach. An additional approach is togenerate white light using a UV LED and three different phosphors, eachemitting light at a different wavelength (e.g., red, green and blue).The efficiency of this configuration, however, is very low because ahigh amount of heat is released due to the Stokes shift. Otherconfigurations include, two LEDs and a phosphor (e.g., a blue LED a redLED, and a green phosphor), three LEDs and a phosphor (e.g., a blue LED,a red LED, a cyan LED, and a green phosphor), two LEDs and two phosphors(e.g., a blue LED, a red LED, a cyan phosphor, and a green phosphor),and the like. Although these configurations show improvement inperformance, the results are far from optimal.

Presently known LED-based backlight devices are limited by the size,price and performance of the LEDs. To date, the performance of the LEDis controlled by its transparent encapsulation (which provides thenecessary light scattering), the phosphor or fluorescent semiconductormaterial which is responsible for color conversion, and the lead framewhich allows for heat evacuation, all of which significantly increasethe size and cost of the LED. Since the performance, cost, and size ofthe LED are conflicting features, some compromises are inevitable.

There is thus a widely recognized need for, and it would be highlyadvantageous to have, a diode-based illumination apparatus devoid of theabove limitations.

SUMMARY

The background art does not teach or suggest an illumination apparatuscapable of generating light while, at the same time, propagating,diffusing and emitting the light through its surface area or a portionthereof. The background art also does not teach or suggest such anillumination apparatus having superior optical and/or geometricalproperties, including, without limitation, a thickness of a fewcentimeters or less, and high light quality in terms of brightness,intensity, and/or color profiles. The background art also does not teachsuch an illumination apparatus that is useful for a variety of differentapplications, e.g., passive displays, which can benefit from itssuperior properties.

Generally, embodiments of the present invention overcome thedeficiencies of the background art by providing an illuminationapparatus that generates and diffuses light. The illumination apparatuscomprises one or more light-emitting sources embedded in a waveguidematerial. The waveguide material is capable of propagating lightgenerated by the light-emitting source(s), such that at least a portionof the light is diffused within the waveguide material and exits throughat least a portion of its surface. In various exemplary embodiments ofthe invention the light-emitting source(s) include or consistessentially of bare LED dies.

Embodiments of the present invention may be incorporated in a passivedisplay device or serve for providing signage or for providingillumination in various decorative patterns of significant aestheticinterest. In various exemplary embodiments of the invention, theapparatus serves as a component of an LCD device.

In one aspect, embodiments of the invention feature an illuminationapparatus including a waveguide having a first surface. Embedded withinthe waveguide is a light-emitting source for emitting source light and aphotoluminescent material for converting some of the source light to adifferent wavelength. The converted source light mixes with unconvertedsource light to form output light spectrally different from both theconverted source light and the unconverted source light. Output light isemitted from at least a portion of the first surface. Thephotoluminescent material includes or consists essentially of nano-sizephosphor particles and/or quantum dots.

One or more of the following features may be included. Thephotoluminescent material may include a first layer and, proximateand/or in direct contact with the first layer, a second layer. The firstlayer may include or consist essentially of nano-size phosphor particlesand/or quantum dots, and the second layer may include or consistessentially of a phosphor material. The second layer may not containnano-size phosphor particles or quantum dots, and may scatter sourcelight. The source light may include at least one of blue light orultraviolet light, or substantially white light. The light-emittingsource may include a bare LED die and may be embedded proximate a secondsurface of the waveguide opposite the first surface. A printed circuitboard may be proximate the second surface of the waveguide, and thelight-emitting source may be electrically connected to the printedcircuit board. The photoluminescent material may be disposed proximatethe first surface or may be dispersed throughout substantially all ofthe waveguide. The photoluminescent material may scatter source light.An encapsulation may be disposed between the light-emitting source andthe waveguide. The photoluminescent material may be disposed proximateand in direct contact with the encapsulation. The waveguide may besubstantially planar.

The waveguide may further include a discrete in-coupling region forreceiving source light, a discrete out-coupling region for emittingoutput light, and a discrete propagation region, spatially distinct fromthe in-coupling and out-coupling regions, for propagating source lightfrom the in-coupling region to the out-coupling region. The in-couplingregion may include a first plurality of scattering impurities, theout-coupling region may include a second plurality of scatteringimpurities, and the propagation region may be substantially free ofscattering impurities. The concentration, size, and/or type of thesecond plurality of scattering particles may vary along at least onedimension of the out-coupling region or may increase as a function ofdistance from the in-coupling region. The propagation region may includethe photoluminescent material, and the photoluminescent material may bedisposed proximate and in direct contact with the first surface in theout-coupling region. The photoluminescent material may include orconsist essentially of nano-size phosphor particles having an averagediameter of less than approximately 3 nm.

In another aspect, embodiments of the invention feature an illuminationapparatus including a waveguide having a first surface. Embedded withinthe waveguide is a light-emitting source for emitting source light. Alayer of phosphor-encapsulating material is disposed on the firstsurface of the waveguide. The layer of phosphor-encapsulating materialincludes a photoluminescent material for converting some of the sourcelight to a different wavelength. The converted source light mixes withunconverted source light to form output light spectrally different fromboth the converted source light and the unconverted source light. Sourcelight is emitted from at least a portion of the first surface of thewaveguide, and output light is emitted from at least a portion of thelayer of phosphor-encapsulating material.

One or more of the following features may be included. The layer ofphosphor-encapsulating material may include or consist essentially ofsilicone, and may be in mechanical contact but not optical contact withthe first surface of the waveguide. The index of refraction of thephosphor-encapsulating material may be less than the index of refractionof the waveguide.

The waveguide may further include a discrete in-coupling region forreceiving source light, a discrete out-coupling region for emittingoutput light, and a discrete propagation region, spatially distinct fromthe in-coupling and out-coupling regions, for propagating source lightfrom the in-coupling region to the out-coupling region. The in-couplingregion may include a first plurality of scattering impurities, theout-coupling region may include a second plurality of scatteringimpurities, and the propagation region may be substantially free ofscattering impurities. The concentration, size, and/or type of thesecond plurality of scattering particles may vary along at least onedimension of the out-coupling region or may increase as a function ofdistance from the in-coupling region. The photoluminescent material maybe present at least, or even only, over the out-coupling region.

The layer of phosphor-encapsulating material may have a thickness lessthan approximately 200 μm. The photoluminescent material may include orconsist essentially of a plurality of particles having an averagediameter ranging from approximately 0.5 μm to approximately 50 μm. Thephotoluminescent material may include or consist essentially ofnano-size phosphor particles and/or quantum dots.

In yet another aspect, embodiments of the invention feature anillumination apparatus including a waveguide having a first surface.Multiple light-emitting sources, each emitting a different source light,are embedded within the waveguide. Disposed proximate the first surfaceis a photoluminescent material for converting some of the source lightof one or more of the light-emitting sources to a different wavelength.The converted source light mixes with unconverted source light to formoutput light spectrally different from both the converted source lightand the unconverted source light. The output light is emitted from atleast a portion of the first surface and has a CRI value greater thanapproximately 70. The CRI value of the output light may be greater thanapproximately 80.

One or more of the following features may be included. The differentsource lights may include or consist essentially of red, green, and bluelight. The converted source light may include or consist essentially ofyellow light. The output light may be substantially white light. Thephotoluminescent material may be disposed within the waveguide, or maybe disposed within a layer of phosphor-encapsulating material disposedabove and in mechanical contact with the first surface. The layer ofphosphor-encapsulating material may or may not be disposed in opticalcontact with the first surface. The photoluminescent material mayinclude or consist essentially of nano-size phosphor particles and/orquantum dots.

In a further aspect, embodiments of the invention feature a plurality ofillumination apparatuses. The first illumination apparatus includes afirst light-emitting source emitting source light having a firstwavelength, and a first layer including or consisting essentially of aphotoluminescent material. The photoluminescent material converts someof the source light to a different wavelength. The converted sourcelight mixes with unconverted source light to form output lightspectrally different from both the converted source light and theunconverted source light. The second illumination apparatus includes asecond light-emitting source emitting source light having a secondwavelength, as well as a second layer including or consistingessentially of the photoluminescent material. The second wavelength maydiffer from the first wavelength by at least approximately 2 nm, atleast approximately 5 nm, or at least approximately 10 nm. The colorcoordinates of the first and second illumination apparatuses differ byno more than approximately 5%, or even by no more than approximately 1%.

In another aspect, embodiments of the invention feature a method offorming an illumination apparatus. The method includes embedding alight-emitting source within a waveguide and embedding aphotoluminescent material within the waveguide. The photoluminescentmaterial includes or consists essentially of nano-size phosphorparticles and/or quantum dots.

One or more of the following features may be included. Thelight-emitting source may include a bare LED die. The waveguide mayinclude a discrete in-coupling region for receiving source light, adiscrete out-coupling region for emitting output light, and a discretepropagation region, spatially distinct from the in-coupling andout-coupling regions, for propagating source light from the in-couplingregion to the out-coupling region. The photoluminescent material mayinclude or consist essentially of nano-size phosphor particles having anaverage diameter of less than approximately 3 nm.

In another aspect, embodiments of the invention feature a method offorming an illumination apparatus. The method includes embedding alight-emitting source within a waveguide and disposing a layer above thefirst surface of the waveguide. The layer may include a photoluminescentmaterial, and may be in mechanical contact with the waveguide. The layermay not be in optical contact with the waveguide. The photoluminescentmaterial may include or consist essentially of nano-size phosphorparticles and/or quantum dots.

The waveguide may further include a discrete in-coupling region forreceiving source light, a discrete out-coupling region for emittingoutput light, and a discrete propagation region, spatially distinct fromthe in-coupling and out-coupling regions, for propagating source lightfrom the in-coupling region to the out-coupling region. The in-couplingregion may include a first plurality of scattering impurities, theout-coupling region may include a second plurality of scatteringimpurities, and the propagation region may be substantially free ofscattering impurities. The concentration, size, and/or type of thesecond plurality of scattering particles may vary along at least onedimension of the out-coupling region or may increase as a function ofdistance from the in-coupling region. The photoluminescent material maybe present at least, or even only, over the out-coupling region.

In another aspect, embodiments of the invention feature a method ofproducing output light. The method includes providing a waveguide,including a first surface, having embedded therein a light-emittingsource and a photoluminescent material and emitting source light fromthe light-emitting source. A portion of the source light is converted toa different wavelength and mixed with unconverted source light to formoutput light spectrally different from both the converted source lightand the unconverted source light. Output light is emitted from at leasta portion of the first surface. The photoluminescent material includesor consists essentially of nano-size phosphor particles and/or quantumdots.

One or more of the following features may be included. Thelight-emitting source may include a bare LED die. The waveguide mayinclude a discrete in-coupling region for receiving source light fromthe light-emitting source, a discrete propagation region for propagatingsource light, and a discrete out-coupling region for emitting outputlight. The light-emitting source may be operated utilizing pulsedelectrical current.

These and other objects, along with advantages and features of thepresent invention herein disclosed, will become more apparent throughreference to the following description, the accompanying drawings, andthe claims. Furthermore, it is to be understood that the features of thevarious embodiments described herein are not mutually exclusive and mayexist in various combinations and permutations.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

In the drawings, like reference characters generally refer to the sameparts throughout the different views. Also, the drawings are notnecessarily to scale, emphasis instead generally being placed uponillustrating the principles of the invention. In the followingdescription, various embodiments of the present invention are describedwith reference to the following drawings, in which:

FIGS. 1 a-1 b are a perspective view (FIG. 1 a) and a section view (FIG.1 b) of an illumination apparatus, according to various exemplaryembodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 1 c is a perspective view of the apparatus in a preferredembodiment in which the apparatus includes or consists essentially of anon-planar waveguide material;

FIGS. 2 a-2 f are schematic fragmentary views of preferred embodimentsin which a source or sources are embedded in the bulk of the waveguidematerial (FIGS. 2 a and 2 c) or near the surface of the waveguidematerial (FIGS. 2 b, 2 d-2 f);

FIG. 3 is a section view of the apparatus, in a preferred embodiment inwhich the apparatus includes a structured film;

FIG. 4 is a fragmentary view of the apparatus in a preferred embodimentin which the apparatus includes one or more embedded optical elementsfor enhancing the diffusion of light;

FIG. 5 is a block diagram schematically illustrating a liquid crystaldisplay device, according to various exemplary embodiments of thepresent invention;

FIG. 6 a is a schematic illustration of the waveguide material in apreferred embodiment in which two layers are employed;

FIGS. 6 b-6 c are schematic illustrations of the waveguide material inpreferred embodiments in which three layers are employed;

FIG. 7 a is a schematic illustration of the waveguide material in apreferred embodiment in which at least one impurity is used forscattering light;

FIG. 7 b is a schematic illustration of the waveguide material in apreferred embodiment in which the impurity comprises a plurality ofparticles having a gradually increasing concentration;

FIG. 7 c is a schematic illustration of the waveguide material in apreferred embodiment in which one layer thereof is formed with one ormore diffractive optical elements for at least partially diffracting thelight;

FIG. 7 d is a schematic illustration of the waveguide material in apreferred embodiment in which one or more regions have different indicesof refraction so as to prevent the light from being reflected; and

FIG. 8 is a schematic illustration of the waveguide material in apreferred embodiment in which photoluminescent material is within adirect line-of-sight of the light-emitting source.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments of the present invention include an apparatus, device andsystem that may be used for providing illumination or displaying images.Specifically, embodiments of the present invention may be used toprovide light at any intensity profile and any color profile. Thepresent embodiments are useful in many areas in which illumination isrequired, including, without limitation, display, signage and decorationapplications.

When a ray of light moves within a transparent substrate and strikes oneof its internal surfaces at a certain angle, the ray of light may beeither reflected from the surface or refracted out of the surface intothe open air in contact with the substrate. The condition according towhich the light is reflected or refracted is determined by Snell's law,which is a mathematical relation between the impinging angle, therefracting angle (in case in case of refraction), and the refractiveindices of both the substrate and the air. Broadly speaking, dependingon the wavelength of the light, for a sufficiently large impinging angle(also known as the critical angle) no refraction can occur and theenergy of the light is trapped within the substrate. In other words, thelight is reflected from the internal surface as if from a mirror. Underthese conditions, total internal reflection is said to take place.

Many optical systems operate according to the total-internal-reflectionphenomenon. One such optical system is the optical fiber. Optical fibersare transparent flexible rods of glass or plastic, basically composed ofa core and cladding. The core is the inner part of the fiber, throughwhich light is guided, while the cladding surrounds it completely. Therefractive index of the core is higher than that of the cladding, sothat light in the core impinging the boundary with the cladding at acritical angle is confined in the core by total internal reflection.

As stated, total internal reflection occurs only for light raysimpinging the internal surface of the optical fiber with an angle whichis larger than the critical angle. Thus, a calculation performedaccording to geometrical optics may provide the largest angle that isallowed for total internal reflection to take place. An importantparameter of every optical fiber (or any other light-transmittingoptical system) is known as the “numerical aperture,” which is definedas the sine of the largest incident light ray angle that is successfullytransmitted through the optical fiber, multiplied by the index ofrefraction of the medium from which the light ray enters the opticalfiber.

Another optical system designed for guiding light is the graded-indexoptical fiber, in which a light ray is guided by refraction rather thanby total internal reflection. In this optical fiber, the refractiveindex decreases gradually from the center outwards along the radialdirection, and finally drops to the same value as the cladding at theedge of the core. As the refractive index does not change abruptly atthe boundary between the core and the cladding, there is no totalinternal reflection. However, although no total internal reflectiontakes place, refraction bends the guided light rays back into the centerof the core while the light passes through layers with lower refractiveindexes.

Optical fibers are available in various lengths and core diameters. Forlarge core diameters, glass optical fibers are known to be more brittleand fragile than plastic optical fiber.

Another type of optical system is based on photonic materials, where thelight ray is confined within a band-gap material surrounding the lightray. In this type of optical system, also known as a photonic-materialwaveguide, the light is confined in the vicinity of a low-index region.One example of a photonic-material waveguide is a silica fiber having anarray of small air holes throughout its length. This configuration iscapable of providing lossless light transmission, e.g., in eithercylindrical or planar type waveguides.

The above description holds both for polarized and unpolarized light.When polarized light is used, an additional electromagnetic phenomenoninfluences the reflection of the light, as further explainedhereinbelow.

Polarized light is produced when the direction of the electromagneticfields in the plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation areconstrained in some fashion. For the purpose of providing a simpleexplanation, only the electric field is discussed herein. Acomplementary explanation, regarding the magnetic field, can be easilyobtained by one ordinarily skilled in the art by considering themagnetic field as being perpendicular to both the direction ofpropagation and the electric field.

The light is said to be elliptically polarized when two perpendicularcomponents of the electric field have a constant phase difference, andthe tip of the electric field vector traces out an ellipse in the planeperpendicular to the direction of propagation. Linearly polarized lightis a special case of elliptically polarized light, where the twocomponents oscillate in phase and the electric vector traces out astraight line.

Circularly polarized light is also a special case of ellipticallypolarized light in which the two components have a 90° phase differenceand the electric-field vector traces out a circle in the planeperpendicular to the direction of propagation. When viewed lookingtowards the source, a right circularly polarized beam at a fixedposition as a function of time has a field vector that describes aclockwise circle, while left circularly polarized light has a fieldvector that describes a counter-clockwise circle.

When polarized light strikes a surface between two different materials,it is useful to define the polarization of the light relative to thesurface, typically as horizontal and vertical polarizations with respectto the surface. When the light strikes a material having associatedvalues of permeability, permittivity, and conductivity, a portion of theenergy carried by the light is lost due to the non-ideal conductivity ofthe material. The relative portion of the energy which is lost isdefined as the reflection coefficient of the material. The reflectivecoefficient varies according to the angle of incidence, the polarizationof the incoming wave, its frequency and the characteristics of thesurface. For horizontal polarizations the coefficient may be generalizedto a constant value, whereas for vertical polarizations, however, thecoefficient varies between 0 and 1.

When the reflective coefficient value goes to zero, the light is notreflected from the surface. This phenomenon is known as the Brewstereffect, and the angle at which there is not reflection (for a particularpolarization) is called the Brewster angle. This angle often referred toas the polarizing angle, since an unpolarized wave incident on aninterface at this angle is reflected as a polarized wave with itselectric vector being perpendicular to the plane of incidence.

Embodiments of the present invention successfully provide variousillumination apparatuses which provide surface illumination at anybrightness, intensity, and color profile. As further detailed herein, anadditional physical phenomenon, light scattering, may be exploited bythe illumination apparatus of the present embodiments.

Unlike the abovementioned reflection, where radiation is deflected fromthe surface in one direction, some particles and molecules, also knownas scatterers, have the ability to scatter radiation in more than onedirection. Many types of scatterers are known. Broadly speaking,scatterers may be categorized into two groups: (i) selective scatterers,which are more effective at scattering a particular wavelength (i.e.,color), or a narrow range of wavelengths, of the light; and (ii)non-selective scatterers, which are capable of scattering light in awide range of wavelengths.

Referring now to the drawings, FIGS. 1 a-1 b illustrate a perspectiveview (FIG. 1 a) and a section view along line A-A (FIG. 1 b) of anillumination apparatus 10, according to various exemplary embodiments ofthe present invention.

Apparatus 10 comprises one or more light-emitting sources 12 embedded ina waveguide material 14 having a first surface 16 and a second surface18. Waveguide material 14 is capable of propagating light generated byeach light source 12, such that at least a portion of the light isdiffused within waveguide material 14 and exits through at least aportion of first surface 16 (and/or, in some embodiments, second surface18).

The terms “light source” and “light-emitting source,” are used hereininterchangeably and refer to any self light-emitting element, including,without limitation, an inorganic light-emitting diode, an organiclight-emitting diode, and/or any other electroluminescent element. Theterm “light source” as used herein refers to one or more light sources.

As used herein, the term “organic” includes polymeric materials as wellas small-molecule organic materials that may be used to fabricateorganic optoelectronic devices. “Small molecule” refers to any organicmaterial that is not a polymer, and “small molecules” may actually bequite large. Small molecules may include repeat units in somecircumstances. For example, using a long chain alkyl group as asubstituent does not remove a molecule from the “small molecule” class.Small molecules may also be incorporated into polymers, for example as apendent group on a polymer backbone or as a part of the backbone. Smallmolecules may also serve as the core moiety of a dendrimer, whichconsists of a series of chemical shells built on the core moiety. Thecore moiety of a dendrimer may be a fluorescent or phosphorescentsmall-molecule emitter. A dendrimer may be a “small molecule,” and it isbelieved that all dendrimers currently used in the field of OLEDs aresmall molecules.

Organic light emitting diodes suitable for application in embodiments ofthe present invention may be bottom-emitting OLEDs, top-emitting OLEDsand side-emitting OLEDs having one or more transparent electrodes.

As used herein, “top” refers to furthest away from second surface 18,while “bottom” refers to closest to second surface 18.

The waveguide material according to embodiments of the present inventionmay be similar to, and/or be based on, the teachings of U.S. patentapplication Ser. Nos. 11/157,190, 60/580,705 and 60/687,865, allassigned to the common assignee of the present invention and fullyincorporated herein by reference. Alternatively, the waveguide materialaccording to some embodiments of the present invention may also haveother configurations and/or other methods of operation as furtherdetailed herein.

Waveguide material 14 may be translucent or clear as desired. In anyevent, since waveguide material 14 propagates and emits the lightemitted by light source 12, it is transparent at least to thecharacteristic emission spectrum of light source 12. The characteristicemission spectrum of the light source is also referred to herein as the“color” of the light source. Thus, for example, a light-emitting sourcecharacterized by a spectrum having an apex at a wavelength of from about420 to about 500 nm is referred to as a “blue light source,” alight-emitting source characterized by a spectrum having an apex at awavelength of from about 520 to about 580 nm is referred to as a “greenlight source,” a light-emitting source characterized by a spectrumhaving an apex at a wavelength of about 620 to about 680 nm is referredto as a “red light source,” and so on for other colors. This terminologyis well-known to those skilled in the art of optics.

As used herein the terms “about” or “approximately” refer to ±10% unlessotherwise indicated.

Waveguide material 14 is optionally and preferably flexible, and mayalso have a certain degree of elasticity. Thus, material 14 may includeor consist essentially of, for example, an elastomer. It is to beunderstood that although waveguide material 14 appears to be flat, i.e.,is substantially planar, in FIGS. 1 a-1 b, this need not necessarily bethe case. FIG. 1 c schematically illustrates a perspective view ofapparatus 10 in a preferred embodiment in which waveguide material 14 isnon-planar. Further, although apparatus 10 is shown as opaque from onedirection, this is only for clarity of presentation and need notnecessarily be the case; the surfaces of apparatus 10 are notnecessarily opaque. Waveguide material 14 is generally solid (i.e., nothollow).

According to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, apparatus10 comprises a reflecting surface 32 that prevents emission of lightthrough surface 18 and therefore enhances emission of light throughsurface 16. Surface 32 may include or consist essentially of anylight-reflecting material, and may be either embedded in or attached towaveguide material 14. Apparatus 10 may further include a printedcircuit board (not shown, see reference numeral 26 in FIG. 2 b), whichsupplies forward bias to the embedded light source.

There are several advantages for embedding the light source within thewaveguide material. One advantage is that all of the light emitted fromthe light source eventually arrives at the waveguide material. When thelight source is externally coupled to the waveguide material, some ofthe light scatters at wide angles and does not impinge on the waveguidematerial. Thus, the embedding of light source 12 in waveguide material14 allows the efficient collection of the emitted light.

Another advantage is the optical coupling between the light source andthe waveguide material, in particular when the light source is alight-emitting diode. When a diode is externally coupled to thewaveguide material, the light emitted from the p-n junction should betransmitted out of the diode into the air, and subsequently from the airinto the waveguide material. The mismatch of impedances in each suchtransition significantly reduces the coupling efficiency due tounavoidable reflections when the light passes from one medium to theother. On the other hand, when the diode is embedded in waveguidematerial, there is a direct transition of light from the diode to thewaveguide material with a higher overall transmission coefficient. Tofurther improve the coupling efficiency, the waveguide material ispreferably selected with a refraction index which is close to therefraction index of the diode. Typical difference in refraction indicesis from about 1.5 to about 1.6.

Light source 12 may include or consist essentially of an LED, whichincludes the bare die and all the additional components packed in theLED package, or, more preferably, light source 12 may include or consistessentially of the bare die, excluding one or more of the othercomponents (e.g., reflecting cup, silicon, LED package, and the like).In preferred embodiments of the invention, bare LED dies do not includea phosphor or other photoluminescent material as a portion thereof(e.g., on a common substrate therewith or incorporated into or onto theLED semiconductor layer structure).

As used herein “bare die” refers to a p-n junction of a semiconductormaterial. When a forward bias is applied to the p-n junction throughelectrical contacts connected to the p side and the n side of the p-njunction, the p-n junction emits light with a characteristic spectrum.

Thus, in various exemplary embodiments of the invention, light source 12includes or consists essentially of only the semiconductor p-n junctionand the electrical contacts. Also contemplated are configurations inwhich several light sources are LEDs, and several light sources are baredies with electrical contacts connected thereto.

The advantage of using a bare die rather than an LED is that some of thecomponents in the LED package, including the LED package itself, absorbpart of the light emitted from the p-n junction and therefore reduce thelight yield.

Another advantage is that the use of a bare die reduces the amount ofheat generated during light emission. This is because heat is generateddue to absorption of light by the LED package and reflecting cup. Theconsequent increase in temperature of the p-n junction causes a thermalimbalance that is known to reduce the light yield. Since the bare diedoes not include the LED package and reflecting cup, the embedding of abare die in the waveguide material reduces the overall amount of heatand increases the light yield. The elimination of the LED packagepermits the use of many small bare dies instead of large packaged LEDs.Such a configuration allows the operation of each bare die at low powerwhile still producing a sufficient overall amount of light, thusimproving the p-n junction efficacy.

An additional advantage is light diffusion within the waveguidematerial. The minimization of redundant components in the vicinity ofthe p-n junction results in almost isotropic emission of light from thep-n junction that improves the diffusion of light. To further improvethe coupling efficiency, the waveguide material is preferably selectedwith a refraction index which is close to the refraction index of thep-n junction.

Light source 12 may be, e.g., embedded in the bulk of waveguide material14 or near surface 18. FIG. 2 a is a fragmentary view schematicallyillustrating an embodiment in which light source 12 is embedded in thebulk of material 14, and FIG. 2 b is fragmentary view schematicallyillustrating an embodiment in which light source 12 is embedded nearsurface 18. It is to be understood that FIGS. 2 a-2 b illustrate asingle light source 12 for clarity of presentation and are not intendedto limit the scope of the present invention to such a configuration. Asstated, apparatus 10 may include one or more light-emitting sources.

Referring to FIG. 2 a, when light source 12 is embedded in the bulk ofthe waveguide material, the electrical contacts 20 may remain withinmaterial 14. In this embodiment, the forward bias may be supplied tolight source 12 by electrical lines 22, such as flexible conductivewires, which are also embedded in material 14. Thus, lines 22 extendfrom contacts 20 to one or more ends 28 of waveguide material 14. Lightsource 12 including the electrical lines 22 may be embedded in material14 during the manufacturing process of the waveguide material. When aplurality of light sources are embedded in the waveguide material, theymay be connected to an arrangement of electrical lines as known in theart and the entirety of light sources and arrangement of electricallines may be embedded in the material during the manufacturing processof the waveguide material.

In various exemplary embodiments of the invention, light source 12 isoperated with low power and therefore does not produce large amount ofheat. This is due to the relatively large light yield of the embeddedlight source and the high optical coupling efficiency between the lightsource and the waveguide material. In particular, when light source 12is a bare die, its light yield is significantly high while the producedheat is relatively low. Light source 12 may also be operated usingpulsed electrical current which further reduces the amount of producedheat.

Preferably, but not obligatorily, light source 12 is encapsulated by atransparent thermal isolating encapsulation 24. Encapsulation 24 servesfor thermally isolating the light source from material 14. Thisembodiment is particularly useful when light source 12 is a bare die, inwhich case the bare die radiates heat that may change the opticalproperties of material 14. Alternatively or additionally, waveguidematerial 14 may have high specific heat capacity to allow material 14 toreceive heat from light source 12 with minimal or no undesired heatingeffects.

Referring to FIG. 2 b, when light source 12 is embedded near surface 18of material 14, electrical contacts 20 may remain outside material 14 atsurface 18 and may therefore be accessed without embedding electricallines in material 14. The electrical contacts may be applied withforward bias using external electrical lines or directly from a printedcircuit board 26. In this embodiment, board 26 may be made, at least inpart, of heat-conducting material so as to facilitate evacuation of heataway from light source 12. When the heat evacuation by board 26 issufficient, light source 12 may be embedded without thermal isolatingencapsulation 24.

As stated, waveguide material 14 is capable of propagating and diffusingthe light until it exits though surface 16 or a portion thereof. It willbe appreciated that this ability of the waveguide material, combinedwith the high light yield and efficient optical coupling between theembedded light sources and the waveguide material, provides apparatus 10with properties suitable for many applications.

As is further detailed herein, there are many alternatives forconstruction of the waveguide material that provide flexibility in itsdesign. In particular, the waveguide material may be tailored accordingto the desired optical properties of the waveguide. Thus, thedistribution of light sources within the waveguide material and/or theoptical properties of the waveguide material may be selected to providethe most suitable illumination for the specific application for whichapparatus 10 is used. More specifically, apparatus 10 may provideillumination at a predetermined light profile, which is manifested by apredetermined intensity profile, predetermined brightness profile,and/or predetermined color profile. Such an illumination apparatus maytherefore provide high light quality in terms of brightness, intensity,and/or color profiles.

For example, light sources emitting different colors of light (i.e.,light sources having different characteristic emission spectra, whichmay or may not have spectral overlaps therebetween), for example two,three, or more different colors, may be distributed in the waveguidesuch that surface 16 emits light at a predetermined light profile.Additionally, the optical properties of the waveguide material may bemade local and wavelength-dependent according to the predetermined lightprofile. More specifically, according to the presently preferredembodiment of the invention, different regions in the waveguide materialhave a different response to different light spectra.

In various exemplary embodiments of the invention, apparatus 10 includesone or more photoluminescent materials 30 coating surface 16 or aportion thereof. Photoluminescent material 30 may include or consistessentially of, e.g., a phosphor or a fluorophore. In a preferredembodiment, photoluminescent material 30 is disposed or dispersed withina phosphor-encapsulating material having an index of refraction lessthan the index of refraction of waveguide material 14. For example,waveguide material 14 may include or consist essentially ofpolymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) having an index of refraction ofapproximately 1.5, and photoluminescent material 30 may be disposedwithin a phosphor-encapsulating material including or consistingessentially of silicone having an index of refraction of approximately1.4. The phosphor-encapsulating material may be present as a discretelayer, “foil,” or “module” disposed on apparatus 10 (e.g., on surface16, as shown in FIGS. 2 a and 2 b), or may be disposed within apparatus10. In various embodiments, the phosphor-encapsulating material isdisposed over but not in optical contact with apparatus 10 (e.g., withsurface 16). The phosphor-encapsulating material may be disposed inmechanical contact with apparatus 10, but, e.g., an optical adhesive maynot be utilized, thereby leaving an air gap (having a thickness on themicrometer scale) therebetween. The air gap facilitates light enteringthe phosphor-encapsulating material having been out-coupled fromapparatus 10 (e.g., as described below) by design rather than due to anyindex of refraction difference between the phosphor-encapsulatingmaterial and waveguide material 14.

In other embodiments, photoluminescent material 30 is disposed neitheron surface 16 nor directly on light source 12. Rather, as describedfurther below, the photoluminescent material (e.g., in the form ofparticles and/or layer(s)) is disposed within apparatus 10 some distanceaway from light source 12 (including, e.g., disposed proximate and/or indirect contact with an encapsulant around light source 12).

The term “photoluminescent material” is commonly used herein to describeone or a plurality of photoluminescent materials (which exhibit, forexample, chemoluminescence, fluorescence, and/or phosphorescence), e.g.,in layered or mixed form. Additionally, a photoluminescent material maycomprise one or more types of photoluminescent molecules. In any event,a photoluminescent material is characterized by an absorption spectrum(i.e., a range of wavelengths of light which may be absorbed by thephotoluminescent molecules to effect quantum transition to a higherenergy level) and an emission spectrum (i.e., a range of wavelengths oflight which are emitted by the photoluminescent molecules as a result ofquantum transition to a lower energy level). The emission spectrum ofthe photoluminescent layer is typically wider and shifted relative toits absorption spectrum. The difference in wavelength between the apexof the absorption and emission spectra of the photoluminescent materialis referred to as the Stokes shift of the photoluminescent material.

The absorption spectrum of photoluminescent material 30 preferablyoverlaps the emission spectrum of at least one of light sources 12. Morepreferably, for each characteristic emission spectrum of an embeddedlight source, there is at least one photoluminescent material having anabsorption spectrum overlapping the emission spectrum the light source.According to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the apexof the light source's emission spectrum lies in the spectrum of thephotoluminescent material, and/or the apex of the photoluminescentmaterial's absorption spectrum lies in the spectrum of the light source.

Photoluminescent material 30 serves to “convert” the wavelength of aportion of the light emitted by light sources 12. More specifically, foreach photon that is successfully absorbed by material 30, a new photonis emitted. Depending on the type of photoluminescent material, theemitted photon may have a wavelength which is longer or shorter than thewavelength of the absorbed photon. Photons that do not interact withmaterial 30 may propagate therethrough. The combination of convertedlight and non-converted light preferably forms the light profile ofapparatus 10.

Phosphors are widely used for coating individual LEDs, typically in thewhite LED industry. However, photoluminescent materials covering anilluminating surface of a waveguide material such as the waveguidematerial of the present embodiments have not been employed. An advantageof using material 30 over waveguide material 14, as opposed to on eachindividual light-emitting source 12, is that waveguide material 14 firstdiffuses the light and thereafter emits it through surface 16. Thus,instead of collecting light from a point light source (e.g., an LED),material 30 collects light from a surface light source having apredetermined area (surface 16 or a portion thereof). This configurationallows better control of the light profile provided by apparatus 10.

Other configurations of photoluminescent material 30 may also enableuniform illumination of substantially white light from apparatus 10.Referring to FIG. 2 c, in an embodiment, photoluminescent material 30 isdisposed at the interface between encapsulation 24 and waveguidematerial 14; alternatively, photoluminescent material 30 may beintegrated (e.g., dispersed) within the encapsulation 24. In eithercase, light unconverted by photoluminescent material 30 passestherethrough and mixes with the portion of the light emitted bylight-emitting source 12 converted by photoluminescent material 30, thusforming substantially white light that is emitted from at least aportion of surface 16. Moreover, the presence of photoluminescentmaterial 30 at the interface between encapsulation 24 and waveguidematerial 14 may decrease or substantially eliminate deleteriousback-scattering at the interface.

FIG. 2 d illustrates an embodiment in which a layer of photoluminescentmaterial 30 is disposed within waveguide material 14 betweenlight-emitting source 12 and surface 16. In such embodiments, the layerof photoluminescent material 30 may be produced by, for example,deposition before a final upper layer of waveguide material 14 isapplied, and may be disposed at any level between light-emitting source12 and surface 16, including proximate (and even in direct physicalcontact with) surface 16. At least a portion of photoluminescentmaterial 30 may be within a direct line-of-sight of light-emittingsource 12.

Referring to FIGS. 2 e and 2 f, photoluminescent material 30 may beformed as part of the “matrix” of waveguide material 14, thereby beingdistributed throughout substantially all of waveguide material 14. Forexample, molecules of photoluminescent material may be dissolved ordispersed (FIG. 2 e), or particles of photoluminescent material may bedispersed (FIG. 2 f), within the waveguide material 14 (or componentsthereof) prior to curing the material into a solid form of waveguidematerial 14. Because the composite waveguide and photoluminescentmaterial may be applied as a coating or molded in a single step, devicesbased on this configuration may be less complicated to fabricate than,for example, configurations including localized layer(s) ofphotoluminescent material 30. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 2 f,the particles of photoluminescent material 30 may also function as animpurity 70 (as described below with reference to FIGS. 7 a and 7 b).

In embodiments of the invention in which photoluminescent material 30 isembedded within waveguide material 14, e.g., the embodiments of FIGS. 2c-2 f, photoluminescent material 30 may be less susceptible to damageduring assembly and use of waveguide material 14 as an (or a portion ofan) illumination apparatus. Photoluminescent materials disposed on anouter surface of an illumination structure may be more susceptible todeterioration, flaking, or other damage, thus compromising the abilityof the illumination structure to emit light having uniform brightnessand color.

Many types of phosphorescent and fluorescent substances are suitable forphotoluminescent material 30. Representative examples include, withoutlimitation, the phosphors disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,813,752,5,813,753, 5,847,507, 5,959,316, 6,155,699, 6,351,069, 6,501,100,6,501,102, 6,522,065, 6,614,179, 6,621,211, 6,635,363, 6,635,987,6,680,004, 6,765,237, 6,853,131, 6,890,234, 6,917,057, 6,939,481,6,982,522, 7,015,510, 7,026,756, 7,045,826, and 7,005,086, the entiredisclosure of each of which is incorporated by reference herein.

The various possible light profile options make the apparatus of thepresent embodiments suitable for providing illumination in manyapplications. Representative examples of uses of apparatus 10, include,without limitation, architectural highlighting, decorative lighting,medical lighting, signage for displaying commercial or decorativeexpressions, visual guidance (e.g., landing strips, aisles), displays,exhibit lighting, roadway lighting, automotive lighting, and the like.In certain embodiments, the flexibility of the waveguide material makesapparatus 10 attachable to many surfaces, including, without limitation,walls of a building (either external or internal), windows, boxes (e.g.,jewelry boxes), toys, and the like.

Although apparatus 10 may be designed to provide any light profile, formany applications it is desired to construct apparatus 10 to providesubstantially uniform illumination. The apparatus of the presentembodiments may provide illumination characterized by a uniformity of atleast 70%, more preferably at least 80%, even more preferably at least90%. This is particularly useful when apparatus 10 is incorporated in abacklight unit of a passive display device.

White light illumination may be provided in more than one way. In oneembodiment, the waveguide material is embedded with red light sources,green light sources, blue light sources, and optionally light sources ofother colors (e.g., orange, yellow, green-yellow, cyan, amber,blue-violet) that are distributed such that the combination of redlight, green light, blue light, and optionally light in the other colorsappears as substantially uniform white light across the area of surface16 or a portion thereof.

In another embodiment, material 30 converts the light emitted by lightsources 12 to substantially white light, e.g., using a dichromatic,trichromatic, tetrachromatic, or multichromatic approach.

For example, a blue-yellow dichromatic approach may be employed, inwhich blue light sources (e.g., bare dies of InGaN with a peak emissionwavelength at about 460 nm), may be distributed in waveguide material14, and material 30 may be made of phosphor molecules with absorptionspectra in the blue range and emission spectra extending to the yellowrange (e.g., cerium-activated yttrium aluminum garnet, or strontiumsilicate europium). Since the scattering angle of light sharply dependson the frequency of the light (fourth-power dependence for Rayleighscattering, or second-power dependence for Mie scattering), the bluelight generated by the blue light sources is efficiently diffused in thewaveguide material and exits, substantially uniformly, through surface16 into layer 30. Material 30, which has no preferred directionality,emits light in its emission spectrum and complements the blue lightwhich is not absorbed to white light.

In other dichromatic configurations, ultraviolet light sources (e.g.,bare dies of GaN, AlGaN and/or InGaN with a peak emission wavelengthsbetween 360 nm and 420 nm), may be distributed in waveguide material 14.Light of such ultraviolet light sources is efficiently diffused in thewaveguide material and exits, substantially uniformly, through surface16. To provide substantially white light, two photoluminescent layersare preferably disposed on surface 16. One layer may be characterized byan absorption spectrum in the ultraviolet range and emission spectrum inthe orange range (with peak emission wavelength from about 570 nm toabout 620 nm), and another layer characterized by an absorption spectrumin the ultraviolet range and emission spectrum in the blue-green range(with peak emission wavelength from about 480 nm to about 500 nm). Theorange light and blue-green light emitted by the two photoluminescentlayers blend to appear as white light to an observer. Since the lightemitted by the ultraviolet light sources is above or close to the end ofvisual range, it is not seen by the observer. The two photoluminescentlayers are preferably disposed one on top of the other (in directphysical contact) to improve the uniformity. Alternatively, a singlelayer having two types of photoluminescent materials with the aboveemission spectra may be utilized.

In another embodiment, a trichromatic approach is employed. For example,blue light sources may be distributed in the waveguide material asdescribed above, with two photoluminescent layers deposited on surface16. A first photoluminescent layer may include or consist essentially ofphosphor molecules with absorption spectra in the blue range andemission spectra extending to the yellow range as described above, and asecond photoluminescent layer may include or consist essentially ofphosphor molecules with absorption spectra in the blue range andemission spectra extending to the red range (e.g., cerium-activatedyttrium aluminum garnet doped with a trivalent ion of praseodymium, oreuropium-activated strontium sulphide). The unabsorbed blue light, theyellow light, and the red light blend to appear as white light to anobserver.

Also contemplated is a configuration is which light sources withdifferent emission spectra are distributed and several photoluminescentlayers are utilized, such that the absorption spectrum of eachphotoluminescent layer overlaps one of the emission spectra of the lightsources, and all of the emitted colors (of the light sources and thephotoluminescent layers) blend to appear as white light. The advantagesof such a multi-chromatic configuration are that it provideshigh-quality white balance because it allows better control on thevarious spectral components of the light in a local manner across thesurface of the illumination apparatus, and delivers a high colorrendering index (CRI) for general lighting applications.

The color composite of the white output light may depend on theintensities and spectral distributions of the emanating light emissions.These depend on the spectral characteristics and spatial distribution ofthe light sources, and, in the embodiments in which one or morephotoluminescent layers are employed, on the spectral characteristics ofthe photoluminescent layer(s) and the amount of unabsorbed light. Theamount of light that is unabsorbed by the photoluminescent layer(s) isin turn a function of the thickness of the photoluminescent layer(s),the density of photoluminescent material(s), and the like. Byjudiciously selecting the emission spectra of light-emitting source 12and optionally the thickness, density, and spectral characteristics(absorption and emission spectra) of material 30, apparatus 10 may bemade to serve as an illumination surface (either planar or non planar,either stiff or flexible) that provides substantially uniform whitelight.

In any of the above embodiments, the “whiteness” of the light may betailored according to the specific application for which apparatus 10 isused. For example, when apparatus 10 is incorporated as a backlight ofan LCD device, the spectral components of the light provided byapparatus 10 may be selected in accordance with the spectralcharacteristics of the color filters of the liquid-crystal panel. Inother words, since a typical liquid-crystal panel comprises anarrangement of color filters operating at a plurality of distinctcolors, the white light provided by apparatus 10 includes at least thedistinct colors of the filters. This configuration significantlyimproves the optical efficiency as well as the image quality provided bythe LCD device, because the optical losses due to mismatch between thespectral components of the backlight unit and the color filters of theliquid crystal panel are reduced or eliminated.

Thus, in an embodiment in which white light is achieved by light sourcesemitting different colors of light (e.g., red light, green light, andblue light), the emission spectra of the light sources are preferablyselected to substantially overlap the characteristic spectra of thecolor filters of an LCD panel. In an embodiment in which apparatus 10 issupplemented by one or more photoluminescent layers, the emissionspectra of the photoluminescent layers and, optionally, the emissionspectrum or spectra of the light sources, are preferably selected tooverlap the characteristic spectra of the color filters of an LCD panel.Typically, the overlap between a characteristic emission spectrum and acharacteristic filter spectrum is about 70% spectral overlap, morepreferably about 80% spectral overlap, even more preferably about 90%.

Reference is now made to FIG. 3, which is a section view along line A-Aof FIG. 1 a, according to a preferred embodiment in which apparatus 10includes a structured film 34. Structured film 34 may be, for example, abrightness-enhancement film, and it may be disposed on or embedded inwaveguide material 14. Film 34 collimates the light emitted from lightsources 12, thereby increasing the brightness of the illuminationprovided by apparatus 10. This embodiment is particularly useful whenapparatus 10 is used for a backlight of an LCD device. The increasedbrightness enables a sharper image to be produced by the liquid-crystalpanel and allows operating the light sources at low power to produce aselected brightness. The structured film may operate according toprinciples and operation of prisms. Thus, light rays arriving at thestructured film at small angles relative to the normal to the structuredfilm are reflected, while other light rays are refracted. The reflectedlight rays continue to propagate and diffuse in the waveguide materialuntil they arrive at the structured film at a sufficiently large angle.In an embodiment in which apparatus 10 includes a reflecting surface 32it prevents the light which is reflected from film 34 from exitingthrough surface 18. Structured films are known in the art and are foundin the literature, see, e.g., International Patent ApplicationPublication No. WO 96/023649, the entire disclosure of which isincorporated by reference herein.

Reference is now made to FIG. 4, which is a fragmentary viewschematically illustrating an embodiment in which apparatus 10 includesone or more optical elements 36 embedded waveguide material 14 forenhancing the diffusion of light. One skilled in the art will recognizethat several components of apparatus 10 have been omitted from FIG. 4for clarity of presentation. Element 36 may be embedded in material 14near surface 16 or at any other location.

In various exemplary embodiments of the invention, element 36 operatesas an angle-selective light-transmissive element. Specifically, element36 is preferably configured to reflect light striking element 36 at apredetermined range of angles (e.g., ±10° from the normal to surface16), and transmit light striking element 36 at other angles. Element 36may be a mini prism, a structured surface similar to surface 34 above, amicrolens, or the like. Element 36 may be embedded in material 14 duringthe manufacturing process of material 14 in parallel to the embedding oflight source 12 or any other component. The size of element 36 may beselected to allow the collection of light rays at the predeterminedrange of angles and therefore may depend on the distance between surface16 and light source 12. Thus, in embodiments in which light source 12 isembedded near surface 18, element 36 has a larger size compared to itssize in embodiments in which light source 12 is embedded in the bulk ofmaterial 14.

Reference is now made to FIG. 5, which is a block diagram schematicallyillustrating a liquid crystal display device 40, according to variousexemplary embodiments of the present invention. Device 40 may include orconsist essentially of a liquid-crystal panel 42 and a backlight unit44. Backlight unit 44 may include or consist essentially of illuminationapparatus 10 as further detailed hereinabove. Several components ofapparatus 10 have been omitted from FIG. 5 for clarity of presentation,but one of ordinary skill in the art, provided with the detailsdescribed herein, would know how to construct apparatus 10 according tothe various exemplary embodiments described above.

Panel 42 may include a matrix of thin-film transistors 46 fabricated ona substrate 48 of glass or another substantially transparent material. Aliquid-crystal film 50 may be disposed over substrate 48 and transistors46. A polarizer 56 may be disposed on a backside of substrate 48.Transistors 16 may be addressed by gate lines (not shown) disposed onthe substrate 48 during the fabrication of transistors 16 as is wellknown in the art. Each particular transistor conducts electrical currentand may charge film 50 in its vicinity. The charging of theliquid-crystal film alters the opacity of the film, and effects a localchange in light transmission of the liquid-crystal film 20. Hence,transistors 16 define display cells 52 (e.g., pixels) in liquid-crystalfilm 50. Typically, the opacity of each display cell is changed to oneof several discrete opacity levels to implement an intensity gray scale.Thus, the display cells serve as grayscale picture elements. However,pixel opacity also may be controlled in a continuous analog fashion or adigital (on/off) fashion.

Color-selective filters 54 may be distributed on cells 52 across thedisplay area of panel 42 to produce a color display. Typically, but notobligatorily, there are three types of color filters (designated in FIG.5 by 54 a, 54 b, and 54 c) where each filter allows transmission of oneof the three primary additive colors: red, green and blue. The schematicblock diagram of FIG. 5 illustrates a single three-component cell thatincludes a first component color (e.g., red output by cell 52 covered byfilter 54 a), a second component color (e.g., green output by cell 52covered by filter 54 b), and a third component color (e.g., blue outputby the cell 52 covered by the filter 54 c), which are selectivelycombined or blended to generate a selected color.

In operation, backlight unit 44 may produce a substantially uniformwhite illumination as detailed above, and polarizer 56 may optimize thelight polarization with respect to polarization properties ofliquid-crystal film 20. The opacity of the cells 52 may be modulatedusing transistors 46 as detailed above to create a transmitted lightintensity modulation across the area of device 40. Color filters 54 maycolorize the intensity-modulated light emitted by the pixels to producea color output. By selective opacity modulation of neighboring displaycells 52 of the three color components, selected intensities of thethree colors may be blended together to selectively control color lightoutput. As is known in the art, selective blending of three primarycolors such as red, green, and blue may generally produce a full rangeof colors suitable for color display purposes. Spatial dithering may beoptionally and preferably used to provide further color blending acrossneighboring color pixels

Display device 40 may be incorporated in may applications.Representative examples include, without limitation, a portable computersystem (e.g., a laptop), a computer monitor, a personal digitalassistant system, a cellular communication system (e.g., a mobiletelephone), a portable navigation system, a television system, and thelike.

Additional objects, advantages and features of the present embodimentswill become apparent to one ordinarily skilled in the art uponexamination of the following examples for constructing waveguidematerial 14, which are not intended to be limiting. According to apreferred embodiment of the present invention, waveguide material 14includes or consists essentially of a polymeric material. The polymericmaterial may optionally include or consist essentially of a rubbery orrubber-like material. According to a preferred embodiment of the presentinvention, material 14 is formed by dip-molding in a dipping medium, forexample, a hydrocarbon solvent in which a rubbery material is dissolvedor dispersed. The polymeric material optionally and preferably has apredetermined level of cross-linking, which is preferably betweenparticular limits. The cross-linking may optionally be physicalcross-linking, chemical cross-linking, or a combination thereof. Anon-limiting illustrative example of a chemically cross-linked polymerincludes or consists essentially of cross-linked polyisoprene rubber. Anon-limiting illustrative example of a physically cross-linked polymerincludes or consists essentially of cross-linked block co-polymers orsegmented co-polymers, which may be cross-linked due to micro-phaseseparation, for example. Material 14 is optionally cross-linked throughapplication of radiation, such as, but not limited to, electron-beamradiation and/or electromagnetic radiation.

Although not limited to rubber itself, the material optionally andpreferably has the physical characteristics of rubber, such asparameters relating to tensile strength and elasticity, which are wellknown in the art. For example, material 14 is preferably characterizedby a tensile set value below approximately 5%. The tensile set valuegenerally depends on the degree of cross-linking and is a measure of theability of flexible material 14, after having been stretched either byinflation or by an externally applied force, to return to its originaldimensions upon deflation or removal of the applied force.

The tensile set value may be determined, for example, by placing tworeference marks on a strip of material 14 and noting the distancebetween them along the strip, stretching the strip to a certain degree(for example, by increasing its elongation to approximately 90% of itsexpected ultimate elongation), holding the stretch for a certain periodof time, e.g., one minute, then releasing the strip and allowing it toreturn to its relaxed length, and re-measuring the distance between thetwo reference marks. The tensile set value is then determined bycomparing the measurements before and after the stretch, subtracting onefrom the other, and dividing the difference by the measurement takenbefore the stretch. In a preferred embodiment, using a stretch ofapproximately 90% of its expected ultimate elongation and a holding timeof one minute, the preferred tensile set value is less thanapproximately 5%. Also contemplated are materials having about 30%plastic elongation and less then approximately 5% elastic elongation.

The propagation and diffusion of light through material 14 may be donein any way known in the art, such as, but not limited to, total internalreflection, graded refractive index, and band gap optics. Additionally,polarized light may be used, in which case the propagation of the lightmay be facilitated by virtue of the reflective coefficient of material14. For example, a portion of material 14 may be made of a dielectricmaterial having a reflective coefficient sufficient to trap the lightwithin at least a predetermined region.

In any event, material 14 is preferably designed and constructed suchthat at least a portion of the light propagates therethrough in aplurality of directions, so as to allow the diffusion of the light inmaterial 14 and the emission of the light through more than one point insurface 16.

Reference is now made to FIGS. 6 a-6 b, which illustrate material 14 inan embodiment in which total internal reflection is employed. In thisembodiment material 14 includes or consists essentially of a first layer62 and a second layer 64. Preferably, the refractive index of layer 66,designated in FIGS. 6 a-6 b by n₁, is smaller than the refractive indexn₂ of layer 64. In such a configuration, when the light, shown generallyat 58, impinges on internal surface 65 of layer 64 at an impinging angleθ, which is larger than the critical angle, θ_(c)≡sin⁻¹(n₁/n₂), thelight energy is trapped within layer 64, and the light propagatestherethrough at a predetermined propagation angle, α. FIGS. 6 b-6 cschematically illustrate embodiments in which material 14 has threelayers, 62, 64 and 66, where layer 64 is interposed between layer 62 andlayer 66. In such embodiments, the refractive indices of layers 62 and64 are smaller than the refractive index of layer 64. As shown, lightsource 12 may be embedded in layer 64 (see FIG. 6 b) or it may beembedded in a manner such that it extends over more than one layer(e.g., layers 62 and 64; see FIG. 6 c).

The light may also propagate through waveguide material 14 when theimpinging angle is smaller than the critical angle, in which case oneportion of the light is emitted and the other portion thereof continuesto propagate. This is the case when material 14 includes or consistsessentially of dielectric or metallic materials, where the reflectivecoefficient depends on the impinging angle θ.

The propagation angle α, is approximately ±(π/2−θ), in radians. αdepends on the ratio between the indices of refraction of the layers.Specifically, when n₂ is much larger than n₁, α is large, whereas whenthe ratio n₂/n₁ is close to, but above, unity, α is small. According toa preferred embodiment of the present invention, the thicknesses of thelayers of material 14 and the indices of refraction are selected suchthat the light propagates in a predetermined propagation angle. Atypical thickness of each layer is from about 10 μm to about 3 mm, morepreferably from about 50 μm to about 500 μm, most preferably from about100 μm to about 200 μm. The overall thickness of material 14 may dependon the height of light source 12. For example, when light source 12 isan LED device of size 0.6 mm (including the LED package), the height ofmaterial 14 is preferably from about 0.65 mm to about 0.8 mm. When lightsource 12 is a bare die of size 0.1 mm, the height of material 14 ispreferably from about 0.15 mm to about 0.2 mm.

The difference between the indices of refraction of the layers ispreferably selected in accordance with the desired propagation angle ofthe light. According to a preferred embodiment of the present invention,the indices of refraction are selected such that propagation angle isfrom about 2 degrees to about 15 degrees. For example, layer 64 may bemade of poly(cis-isoprene), having a refractive index of about 1.52, andlayers 62 and 66 may be made of Poly(dimethyl siloxane) having arefractive index of about 1.45, so that Δn≡n₂−n₁≈0.07 and n₂/n₁≈0.953,corresponding to a propagation angle of about ±19 degrees.

The emission of the light from surface 16 of material 14 may be achievedin more than one way. Broadly speaking, one or more of the layers ofwaveguide material 14 preferably include at least one additionalcomponent 71 (not shown, see FIGS. 7 a-7 d) designed and configured soas to allow the emission of the light through the surface. Following areseveral examples for the implementation of component 71, which are notintended to be limiting.

Referring to FIG. 7 a, in one embodiment, component 71 is implemented asat least one impurity 70, present in second layer 64 and capable ofemitting light, so as to change the propagation angle of the light.Impurity 70 may serve as a scatterer, which, as stated, may scatterradiation in more than one direction. When the light is scattered byimpurity 70 in such a direction that the impinging angle θ, which isbelow the aforementioned critical angle θ_(c), no total internalreflection occurs and the scattered light is emitted through surface 16.According to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, theconcentration and distribution of impurity 70 is selected such that thescattered light is emitted from a predetermined region of surface 16.More specifically, in regions of waveguide material 14 where largerportions of the propagated light are to be emitted through the surface,the concentration of impurity 70 is preferably large, while in regionswhere a small portion of the light is to be emitted the concentration ofimpurity 70 is preferably smaller.

As will be appreciated by one ordinarily skilled in the art, the energytrapped in waveguide material 14 decreases each time a light ray isemitted through surface 16. On the other hand, it is often desired touse material 14 to provide a uniform surface illumination. Thus, as theoverall amount of energy decreases with each emission, a uniform surfaceillumination may be achieved by gradually increasing the ratio betweenthe emitted light and the propagated light. According to a preferredembodiment of the present invention, the increasing emitted/propagatedratio is achieved by an appropriate selection of the distribution ofimpurity 70 in layer 64. More specifically, the concentration ofimpurity 70 is preferably an increasing function (e.g., step-wise orcontinuous) of the optical distance which the propagated light travels.

Optionally, impurity 70 may include or consist essentially of any objectthat scatters light and that is incorporated into the material,including but not limited to, beads, air bubbles, glass beads or otherceramic particles, rubber particles, silica particles and so forth, anyof which may optionally be fluorescent particles or biologicalparticles, such as, but not limited to, liposomes.

FIG. 7 b further details the presently preferred embodiment of theinvention. In FIG. 7 b, impurity 70 is optionally and preferablyimplemented as a plurality of particles 42, distributed in an increasingconcentration so as to provide a light gradient. Particles 42 arepreferably organized so as to cause light to be transmitted withsubstantially lowered losses through scattering of the light. Particles42 may optionally be implemented as a plurality of bubbles in a solidplastic portion, such as a tube. According to a preferred embodiment ofthe present invention, the approximate size of particles 42 is selectedto selectively scatter a predetermined range of wavelengths of thelight. More specifically, small particles may scatter small wavelengthsand large particles may scatter both small and large wavelengths.

Particles 42 may also optionally act as filters, for example forfiltering out particular wavelengths of light. Preferably, differenttypes of particles 42 are used at different locations in waveguidematerial 14. For example, particles 42 that scatter a particularspectrum may preferably be used within waveguide material 14, atlocations where the particular wavelength is to be emitted fromwaveguide material 14 to provide illumination.

According to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, impurity70 is capable of producing different optical responses to differentwavelengths of the light. The different optical responses may berealized as different emission angles, different emission wavelengths,and the like. For example, different emission wavelengths may beachieved by implementing impurity 70 as beads each having predeterminedcombination of color-components, e.g., a predetermined combination offluorophore molecules.

When a fluorophore molecule embedded in a bead absorbs light, electronsare boosted to a higher energy shell of an unstable excited state.During the lifetime of excited state (typically 1-10 nanoseconds) thefluorophore molecule undergoes conformational changes and is alsosubject to a multitude of possible interactions with its molecularenvironment. The energy of the excited state is partially dissipated,yielding a relaxed singlet excited state from which the excitedelectrons fall back to their stable ground state, emitting light of aspecific wavelength. The emission spectrum is shifted towards a longerwavelength than its absorption spectrum. The difference in wavelengthbetween the apex of the absorption and emission spectra of a fluorophore(also referred to as the Stokes shift), is typically small.

Thus, in an embodiment, the wavelength (color) of the emitted light iscontrolled by the type(s) of fluorophore molecules embedded in thebeads. Other objects having similar or other light-emission propertiesmay be also be used. Representative examples include, withoutlimitation, fluorochromes, chromogenes, quantum dots, nanocrystals,nanoprisms, nanobarcodes, scattering metallic objects, resonancelight-scattering objects, and solid prisms.

Referring to FIG. 7 c, in another embodiment, component 71 isimplemented as one or more diffractive optical elements 72 that at leastpartially diffract the light. Thus, propagated light reaches opticalelement 72, where a portion of the light energy is coupled out ofmaterial 14, while the remnant energy is redirected through an angle,which causes it to continue its propagation through layer 64. Opticalelement 70 may be realized in many ways, including, without limitation,non-smooth surfaces of layer 64, a mini-prism or grating formed oninternal surface 65 and/or external surface 67 of layer 64. Diffractiongratings are known to allow both redirection and transmission of light.The angle of redirection is determined by an appropriate choice of theperiod of the diffraction grating often called “the grating function.”Furthermore, the diffraction efficiency controls the energy fractionthat is transmitted at each strike of light on the grating. Hence, thediffraction efficiency may be predetermined so as to achieve an outputhaving predefined light intensities; in particular, the diffractionefficiency may vary locally for providing substantially uniform lightintensities. Optical element 70 may also be selected such that thescattered light has a predetermined wavelength. For example, in anembodiment in which optical element 70 is a diffraction grating, thegrating function may be selected to allow diffraction of a predeterminedrange of wavelengths.

Referring to FIG. 7 d, in an additional embodiment, one or more regions74 of layer 62 and/or layer 66 have different indices of refraction soas to prevent the light from being reflected from internal surface 65 ofsecond layer 64. For example, denoting the index of refraction of region74 by n₃, a skilled artisan would appreciate that when n₃>n₂, no totalinternal reflection can take place, because the critical angle θ_(c) isonly defined when the ratio n₃/n₂ does not exceed the value of 1. Anadvantage of this embodiment is that the emission of the light throughsurface 16 is independent on the wavelength of the light.

Referring to FIG. 8, apparatus 10 may be shaped as a generally planarsheet, and may include or consist essentially of three discrete,spatially distinct regions, namely, in-coupling region 80, propagationregion 82, and out-coupling region 84. One or more light-emittingsources 12 are preferably embedded within waveguide material 14, and maybe surrounded by encapsulation 24. Apparatus 10 may also include one ormore reflectors 86 which reflect light emitted by source 12 such that itremains confined within waveguide material 14 except in regions fromwhich light is meant to be emitted, e.g., out-coupling region 84. Lightemitted from source 12 is “coupled” into waveguide material 14 inin-coupling region 80 by, e.g., scattering off of one or more impurities70. In this manner, light emitted from source 12 is redirected towardpropagation region 82 and/or out-coupling region 84, e.g., in adirection generally perpendicular to the direction of light emissionfrom light-emitting source 12. Propagation region 82 may becharacterized by the near or complete absence of scattering impurities70; thus, light merely propagates through propagation region 82 withsubstantially no emission through surface 16. Finally, light is emittedfrom surface 16 in out-coupling region 84, e.g., in a directiongenerally perpendicular to the propagation direction through propagationregion 82 and/or generally parallel to a direction of light emissionfrom light-emitting source 12. To this end, out-coupling region 84 mayinclude a plurality of impurities 70, the size, type, and/orconcentration of which may vary as a function of distance alongout-coupling region 84 (as in, for example, FIG. 7 b). Some or all ofimpurities 70 in out-coupling region 84 may include or consistessentially of photoluminescent material 30 (as further describedbelow). The light emitted from out-coupling region 84 may besubstantially uniform and/or substantially white. Apparatus 10 mayadditionally include one or more cladding layers (not shown) proximateor in direct physical contact with surfaces 16 and/or 18. The claddinglayer(s) may facilitate prevention of unwanted light emission from oneor more regions of surfaces 16 and/or 18. The cladding layers mayinclude or consist essentially of a phosphor-encapsulating material (asdescribed above), and may only contain a photoluminescent material 30over out-coupling region 84 (such that only out-coupled light ispartially or entirely color shifted, as described below). In someembodiments, the cladding, including or consisting essentially of aphosphor-encapsulating material, is present only over the out-couplingregion 84.

As depicted in FIG. 8, an apparatus 10 having in-coupling region 80,propagation region 82, and out-coupling region 84 may also incorporatephotoluminescent material 30 in any one or more of several possibleconfigurations. While FIG. 8 depicts several of these configurations,embodiments of the invention may incorporate any of the configurationsof photoluminescent material 30 singly or in combination with any numberof others. Analogous to the configurations depicted in FIGS. 2 a-2 f,photoluminescent material 30 may be disposed at an interface betweenencapsulation 24 and waveguide material 14 and/or as a distinct layer orregion within any portion of waveguide material 14 betweenlight-emitting source 12 and surface 16 in out-coupling region 84. Inother embodiments, photoluminescent material 30 may be present in theform of, e.g., particles, for example in out-coupling region 84. In suchembodiments, photoluminescent material 30 may also facilitate theout-coupling of light through surface 16 in out-coupling region 84. Inyet other embodiments (not pictured in FIG. 8 for clarity),photoluminescent material 30 may form a portion of the waveguidematerial 14 matrix (as also depicted in FIG. 2 e) in any one or more ofin-coupling region 80, propagation region 82, and out-coupling region84. In any of the above-described embodiments of the invention, aportion or substantially all of photoluminescent material 30 ispreferably within a direct line-of-sight of light-emitting source 12.Generally, photoluminescent material 30 may be disposed within waveguidematerial 14 in any one or more of in-coupling region 80, propagationregion 82, and out-coupling region 84.

The above-described configurations and locations of photoluminescentmaterial 30 may improve, e.g., the quantum efficiency (or otherperformance metric) thereof, and also enable the use of particularphotoluminescent materials 30 that may degrade when the material isexposed to elevated temperatures, e.g., temperatures greater thanapproximately 50° C. Such placement(s) of photoluminescent material 30prevents the temperature of the material from rising (or risingdetrimentally) during operation due to, e.g., heat given off bylight-emitting source 12—i.e., the photoluminescent material is disposedsufficiently remotely from the light-emitting source so as to besubstantially unaffected by heat emitted by the light-emitting source.Instead, the temperature of at least a portion of photoluminescentmaterial 30 may generally remain at the ambient temperature of thesurroundings of apparatus 10. Generally, the temperature ofphotoluminescent material 30 may remain at least approximately 30° C.,or even at least 100° C., less than the temperature of light-emittingsource 12 during operation. Examples of desirable photoluminescentmaterials 30 include (Y, Gd)AG:Ce materials.

In an embodiment, the quantum efficiency of photoluminescent material 30is only stable up to a temperature of approximately 50° C. However, inmany configurations the temperature of the material remains lower thanthis level due to its placement within apparatus 10 (including, e.g.,remotely located with respect to light-emitting source 12). In variousembodiments, photoluminescent material 30 includes or consistsessentially of one or more electroluminescent materials rather than (orin addition to) photoluminescent materials. Such electroluminescentmaterials may include or consist essentially of quantum dot materialsand/or organic LED (OLED) materials. Suitable quantum dots may includeor consist essentially of cadmium selenide.

During assembly of apparatus 10, elevated temperatures capable ofdamaging (e.g., degrading the quantum efficiency of) photoluminescentmaterial 30 are often required when affixing or embedding light-emittingsource 12 into apparatus 10. Judicious location of photoluminescentmaterial 30 enables it to be provided within apparatus 10 prior to theaddition of light-emitting source 12, thereby avoiding such damage.Furthermore, as noted above, the distance between the material 30 andthe light-emitting source 12 may prevent the elevated temperatures fromdamaging the photoluminescent material during operation.

One deleterious effect that may occur when color shifting (or“converting” light from one wavelength to another) with aphotoluminescent material is a loss of illumination efficacy due to oneor more of three principal loss mechanisms. First, illumination efficacymay be lost due to Stokes-shift loss, which is the amount of energy lostwhen light is converted from a shorter wavelength to a longer one.Second, loss may arise from quantum-efficiency loss, i.e., a decrease inthe number of photons emitted at the converted (e.g., longer) wavelengthcompared to the number of photons absorbed by the photoluminescentmaterial. Finally, efficacy may be lost via scattering losses resultingfrom light being backscattered from the photoluminescent material andabsorbed by the device package. Problematically, the use of somephotoluminescent materials for color shifting may increase the magnitudeof these losses, particularly when large amounts of the materials areutilized.

In various embodiments, apparatus 10 has a high color-rendering index(CRI) without significant decreases in illumination efficacy. In someembodiments, a high CRI is facilitated by color shifting via a thinlayer (preferably having a thickness less than approximately 200 μm)that includes photoluminescent material 30 in the form of particles. Theparticles may have average diameters ranging from approximately 0.5 μmto approximately 50 μm. The thin layer may be located at, e.g., any ofthe various locations indicated for photoluminescent material 30 inFIGS. 2 a-2 d and FIG. 8. Such layers typically have very high quantumefficiency, minimizing quantum-efficiency losses. The photoluminescentmaterial 30 tends to be dispersed over a fairly large area (e.g.,compared with the thickness of the thin layer), decreasing the amount ofenergy absorption (and thus heat production) in the individual particlesof photoluminescent material 30. Thus, photoluminescent material 30exhibits small amounts of the heating that tends to reduce quantumefficiency.

Apparatus 10 may include a photoluminescent material 30 that includes orconsists essentially of a plurality of quantum dots and/or nano-sizephosphor particles. As utilized herein, “nano-size phosphor particles”refers to particles of photoluminescent material having an averagediameter of less than approximately 1 μm, and more typically less thanapproximately 100 nm. The quantum dots utilized in various embodimentsof the invention are generally crystalline semiconductor-based particleshaving an average diameter of less than approximately 1 μm, and moretypically less than approximately 100 nm. In some embodiments, thequantum dots have average diameters ranging between approximately 5 nmand approximately 7 nm.

The use of quantum dots and/or nano-size phosphor particles as aphotoluminescent material increases the CRI of apparatus 10 withoutsignificant decreases in illumination efficacy primarily becausescattering losses are minimized. So long as the quantum dots and/ornano-size phosphor particles have an average diameter smaller than thewavelength of the incident light to be converted, scattering losses aregenerally minimal or absent entirely. However, the use of nano-sizephosphor particles may lead to increased quantum-efficiency losses dueto the large surface area-to-volume ratio of the particles, as well asthe fact that surface states of these particles tend to be non-radiative(and thus do not contribute to light emission). However, variousembodiments of the invention utilize nano-size phosphor particles havingaverage diameters of less than approximately 3 nm, or even less thanapproximately 2 nm. As the average diameter of the particles decreasesto such values, quantum efficiency thereof actually rises significantly,and quantum-efficiency losses are advantageously minimized.

Thus, embodiments of the invention feature a photoluminescent material30 (e.g., located at any or all of the locations indicated in FIG. 8)that includes or consists essentially of a plurality of quantum dotsand/or nano-size phosphor particles. The nano-size phosphor particlesmay have average diameters less than approximately 3 nm, or even lessthan approximately 2 nm. The photoluminescent material 30 including orconsisting essentially of the quantum dots and/or nano-size phosphorparticles may be present in apparatus 10 either instead of or inaddition to any of the other types of photoluminescent material 30described herein. For example, apparatus 10 may include a layer ofphotoluminescent material 30 including or consisting essentially ofquantum dots and/or nano-size phosphor particles formed proximate and/orin direct contact with a layer of a different photoluminescent material30 (e.g., in any of the locations indicated on FIG. 8). Thephotoluminescent material 30 including or consisting essentially ofquantum dots and/or nano-size phosphor particles may also be dispersedamong another photoluminescent material 30 present in the form ofscattering particles (as described above). Apparatus 10 including aphotoluminescent material 30 in the form of quantum dots and/ornano-size phosphor particles generally has a larger CRI than anequivalent illumination apparatus lacking such a photoluminescentmaterial or including only a photoluminescent material in the form oflarger particles or discrete layer(s).

The utilization of various types of photoluminescent material 30(including, but not limited to quantum dots and/or nano-size phosphorparticles) may also increase the CRI of an apparatus 10 includingmultiple light-emitting sources 12. In various schemes, color-mixingmultiple light sources to form, e.g, white light, results in low CRIvalues. For example, color mixing with red, green, and blue LEDstypically results in CRI values of only 20-30 (on the CRI scale of 100).Generally, for illumination a light source should have a CRI of greaterthan approximately 70.

In various embodiments, apparatus 10 includes multiple light-emittingsources 12, and at least two, or even three, of the light-emittingsources 12 each emits light of a different wavelength (e.g., of adifferent visible color) from that emitted by the other light-emittingsource(s) 12. For example, apparatus 10 may include light-emittingsources 12 emitting red, green, and blue light, and may include one ormore of each. Apparatus 10 also includes a photoluminescent material 30(e.g., in any or all of the locations described above and depicted inFIG. 8) that color shifts a portion of the light emitted from one ormore of light-emitting sources 12. The color-shifted light combines withthe light emitted from light-emitting sources 12 (including anyremaining light color-shiftable by photoluminescent material 30 but notcolor shifted thereby, as well as any light not color-shiftable byphotoluminescent material 30) to form light having a CRI value greaterthan 70, or even greater than 80. The mixture of light emitted fromlight-emitting sources 12 may be substantially white light even withoutthe interaction with photoluminescent material 30, and may besubstantially white thereafter (but with a higher CRI value). In anembodiment, apparatus 10 includes light-emitting sources emitting red,green, and blue light, and at least a portion of the blue light isconverted into yellow light by photoluminescent material 30, thusforming white light with a high CRI value.

In order to increase color uniformity (i.e., uniformity of the colorcoordinates of emitted light arising from the mixing of the light ofindividual light sources emitting at different colors), typical schemesutilize LEDs that must be precisely wavelength-matched, requiringexpensive and time-consuming “binning” procedures to individually selectsets of LEDs. The binning procedures generally must select LEDs havingwavelengths within approximately 5 nm of each other to form color-mixedlight sources having repeatable uniformity values. Unfortunately, evensuch painstaking procedures may eventually fail, as the emissionwavelength of light sources such as LEDs may change during the lifetimeof the light source.

Such embodiments of the invention may be utilized to form a plurality ofapparatuses 10 that emit light having substantially similar, or evenidentical, color coordinates and/or CRI values, even though theindividual light-emitting sources 12 therein emit light at wavelengthsdiffering by more than approximately 10 nm. For example, a firstapparatus 10 may include red-, green-, and blue-emitting light-emittingsources 12, and a second apparatus 10 may include red-, green-, andblue-emitting light-emitting sources 12, at least one (or even all) ofwhich emit at wavelength different by more than approximately 10 nm thanthat emitted by the corresponding light-emitting source in the firstapparatus 10. However, both the first and second apparatuses 10 emitlight (e.g., substantially white light) having color coordinates valuesdiffering by no more than 10%, no more than 5%, no more than 1%, or evenless. The color coordinates values of each apparatus 10 may be the (x,y)chromaticity parameters, as defined by the standard of the InternationalCommission on Illumination (CIE), which are functions of the CIEtristimulus values (X, Y, Z). The respective x and y parameters for eachapparatus preferably differ by no more than 10%, no more than 5%, nomore than 1%, or even less. Further, the respective x and y parametersfor each apparatus may differ by no more than 0.002. Such repeatabilityis advantageously achieved via the use of photoluminescent material30—the color mixing thereby “blurs” the difference in individualwavelengths by the addition of compensating color-shifted light. Eachlight-emitting source 12 may emit light having a “spread” or spectrum ofwavelengths, and the wavelength referred to above may correspond to theemitted wavelength of maximum intensity.

As stated, flexible material 14 preferably includes or consistsessentially of a polymeric material. The polymeric material mayoptionally include or consist essentially of natural rubber, a syntheticrubber, or a combination thereof. Examples of synthetic rubbers,particularly those which are suitable for medical articles and devices,are taught in U.S. Pat. No. 6,329,444, hereby incorporated by referenceas if fully set forth herein with regard to such illustrative,non-limiting examples. The synthetic rubber in this patent is preparedfrom cis-1,4-polyisoprene, although of course other synthetic rubberscould optionally be used. Natural rubber may optionally be obtained fromHevena brasiliensis or any other suitable species. In some embodimentsmaterial 14 is not flexible, comprising or consisting essentially of,for example, polymethyl methacrylate and/or polycarbonate.

Other exemplary materials, which may optionally be used alone or incombination with each other, or with one or more of the above rubbermaterials, include but are not limited to, crosslinked polymers such aspolyolefins, including but not limited to, polyisoprene, polybutadiene,ethylene-propylene copolymers, chlorinated olefins such aspolychloroprene (neoprene) block copolymers, including diblock-,triblock-, multiblock- or star-block-, such as:styrene-butadiene-styrene copolymers, or styrene-isoprene-styrenecopolymers (preferably with styrene content from about 1% to about 37%),segmented copolymers such as polyurethanes, polyether-urethanes,segmented polyether copolymers, silicone polymers, including copolymers,and fluorinated polymers and copolymers.

For example, optionally and preferably, the second layer may include orconsist essentially of polyisoprene, while the first layer optionallyand preferably may include or consist essentially of silicone. If athird layer is present, it also optionally and preferably may include orconsist essentially of silicone.

According to an optional embodiment of the present invention, theflexible material is formed by dip-molding in a dipping medium.Optionally, the dipping medium may include or consist essentially of ahydrocarbon solvent in which a rubbery material is dissolved ordispersed. Also optionally, the dipping medium may include one or moreadditives selected from the group consisting of cure accelerators,sensitizers, activators, emulsifying agents, cross-linking agents,plasticizers, antioxidants, and reinforcing agents.

The terms and expressions employed herein are used as terms andexpressions of description and not of limitation, and there is nointention, in the use of such terms and expressions, of excluding anyequivalents of the features shown and described or portions thereof. Inaddition, having described certain embodiments of the invention, it willbe apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that other embodimentsincorporating the concepts disclosed herein may be used withoutdeparting from the spirit and scope of the invention. Accordingly, thedescribed embodiments are to be considered in all respects as onlyillustrative and not restrictive.

1. An illumination apparatus comprising: a waveguide having a firstsurface; embedded within the waveguide, (i) a light-emitting source foremitting source light, and (ii) a photoluminescent material forconverting some of the source light to a different wavelength, theconverted source light mixing with unconverted source light to formoutput light spectrally different from both the converted source lightand the unconverted source light, wherein output light is emitted fromat least a portion of the first surface, and the photoluminescentmaterial comprises at least one of nano-size phosphor particles orquantum dots.
 2. The illumination apparatus of claim 1, wherein thephotoluminescent material consists essentially of at least one ofnano-size phosphor particles or quantum dots.
 3. The illuminationapparatus of claim 1, wherein photoluminescent material comprises afirst layer consisting essentially of at least one of nano-size phosphorparticles or quantum dots and, proximate the first layer, a second layerof phosphor material.
 4. The illumination apparatus of claim 3, whereinthe second layer does not contain nano-size phosphor particles orquantum dots.
 5. The illumination apparatus of claim 4, wherein thesecond layer scatters source light.
 6. The illumination apparatus ofclaim 1, wherein the light-emitting source is embedded proximate asecond surface of the waveguide opposite the first surface.
 7. Theillumination apparatus of claim 1, wherein the photoluminescent materialis disposed proximate the first surface.
 8. The illumination apparatusof claim 1, wherein the photoluminescent material is dispersedthroughout substantially all of the waveguide.
 9. The illuminationapparatus of claim 1, wherein the waveguide is substantially planar. 10.The illumination apparatus of claim 1, wherein the waveguide comprises:a discrete in-coupling region for receiving source light; a discreteout-coupling region for emitting output light; and a discretepropagation region, spatially distinct from the in-coupling andout-coupling regions, for propagating source light from the in-couplingregion to the out-coupling region.
 11. The illumination apparatus ofclaim 10, wherein the in-coupling region comprises a first plurality ofscattering impurities, the out-coupling region comprises a secondplurality of scattering impurities, and the propagation region issubstantially free of scattering impurities.
 12. The illuminationapparatus of claim 10, wherein the propagation region comprises thephotoluminescent material.
 13. The illumination apparatus of claim 10,wherein the photoluminescent material is disposed proximate and indirect contact with the first surface in the out-coupling region. 14.The illumination apparatus of claim 1, wherein the photoluminescentmaterial comprises nano-size phosphor particles having an averagediameter of less than approximately 3 nm.
 15. An illumination apparatuscomprising: a waveguide having a first surface; embedded within thewaveguide, a light-emitting source for emitting source light; disposedon the first surface of the waveguide, a layer of phosphor-encapsulatingmaterial; and disposed within the layer of phosphor-encapsulatingmaterial, a photoluminescent material for converting some of the sourcelight to a different wavelength, the converted source light mixing withunconverted source light to form output light spectrally different fromboth the converted source light and the unconverted source light,wherein source light is emitted from at least a portion of the firstsurface of the waveguide and output light is emitted from at least aportion of the layer of phosphor-encapsulating material.
 16. Theillumination apparatus of claim 15, wherein the layer ofphosphor-encapsulating material is in mechanical contact but not opticalcontact with the first surface of the waveguide.
 17. The illuminationapparatus of claim 15, wherein the phosphor-encapsulating materialcomprises silicone.
 18. The illumination apparatus of claim 15, whereinan index of refraction of the phosphor-encapsulating material is lessthan an index of refraction of the waveguide.
 19. The illuminationapparatus of claim 15, wherein the waveguide comprises: a discretein-coupling region for receiving source light; a discrete out-couplingregion for emitting output light; and a discrete propagation region,spatially distinct from the in-coupling and out-coupling regions, forpropagating source light from the in-coupling region to the out-couplingregion, and wherein the photoluminescent material is present only overthe out-coupling region.
 20. The illumination apparatus of claim 15,wherein the layer of phosphor-encapsulating material has a thicknessless than approximately 200 μm and the photoluminescent materialcomprises a plurality of particles having an average diameter rangingfrom approximately 0.5 μm to approximately 50 μm.
 21. The illuminationapparatus of claim 15, wherein the photoluminescent material comprisesat least one of nano-size phosphor particles or quantum dots.
 22. Anillumination apparatus comprising: a waveguide having a first surface;embedded within the waveguide, a plurality of light-emitting sources,each light-emitting source emitting a different source light; anddisposed proximate the first surface, a photoluminescent material forconverting some of the source light of one of the light-emitting sourcesto a different wavelength, the converted source light mixing withunconverted source light to form output light spectrally different fromboth the converted source light and the unconverted source light,wherein the output light is emitted from at least a portion of the firstsurface and has a CRI value greater than approximately
 70. 23. Theillumination apparatus of claim 22, wherein the different source lightscomprise red, green, and blue light, and the converted source lightcomprises yellow light.
 24. The illumination apparatus of claim 22,wherein the output light is substantially white light.
 25. Theillumination apparatus of claim 22, wherein the photoluminescentmaterial is disposed within the waveguide.
 26. The illuminationapparatus of claim 22, wherein the photoluminescent material is disposedwithin a layer of phosphor-encapsulating material disposed above and inmechanical contact but not in optical contact with the first surface.27. The illumination apparatus of claim 26, wherein the layer ofphosphor-encapsulating material is disposed in optical contact with thefirst surface.
 28. The illumination apparatus of claim 22, wherein thephotoluminescent material comprises at least one of nano-size phosphorparticles or quantum dots.
 29. A plurality of illumination apparatusescomprising: a first illumination apparatus comprising: a firstlight-emitting source emitting source light having a first wavelength,and a first layer comprising a photoluminescent material for convertingsome of the source light to a different wavelength, the converted sourcelight mixing with unconverted source light to form output lightspectrally different from both the converted source light and theunconverted source light; and a second illumination apparatuscomprising: a second light-emitting source emitting source light havinga second wavelength differing from the first wavelength by at leastapproximately 5 nm, and a second layer comprising the photoluminescentmaterial, wherein the color coordinates of the first and secondillumination apparatuses differ by no more than approximately 5%. 30.The plurality of illumination apparatuses of claim 29, wherein thesecond wavelength and the first wavelength differ by at leastapproximately 10 nm.
 31. The plurality of illumination apparatuses ofclaim 29, wherein the color coordinates of the first and secondillumination apparatuses differ by no more than approximately 1%.
 32. Amethod of forming an illumination apparatus, the method comprising:embedding a light-emitting source within a waveguide; and embedding aphotoluminescent material within the waveguide, the photoluminescentmaterial comprising at least one of nano-size phosphor particles orquantum dots.
 33. The method of claim 32, wherein the waveguidecomprises: a discrete in-coupling region for receiving source light, adiscrete out-coupling region for emitting output light; and a discretepropagation region, spatially distinct from the in-coupling andout-coupling regions, for propagating source light from the in-couplingregion to the out-coupling region.
 34. The method of claim 32, whereinthe photoluminescent material comprises nano-size phosphor particleshaving an average diameter of less than approximately 3 nm.
 35. A methodof forming an illumination apparatus, the method comprising: embedding alight-emitting source within a waveguide; and disposing a layercomprising a photoluminescent material above a first surface of thewaveguide, wherein the layer is in mechanical contact but not opticalcontact with the waveguide.
 36. The method of claim 35, wherein thephotoluminescent material comprises at least one of nano-size phosphorparticles or quantum dots.
 37. The method of claim 35, wherein thewaveguide comprises: a discrete in-coupling region for receiving sourcelight; a discrete out-coupling region for emitting output light; and adiscrete propagation region, spatially distinct from the in-coupling andout-coupling regions, for propagating source light from the in-couplingregion to the out-coupling region, and wherein the photoluminescentmaterial is present only over the out-coupling region.